Methods to conserve our flora and fauna.

C0NSERVATION OF FLORA & FAUNA

Flora is basically the plant life that is present in a particular region or habitat or at a particular time and fauna is the animal life that is present in a particular region or habitat or at a particular time. Biodiversity is a very large topic and somewhat difficult to define adequately in only a sentence or two. In the very simplest terms, "biodiversity" means the diversity of life on our planet, which includes genetic diversity, species diversity, and habitat diversity. Diversity can be defined as the number of different items and their relative frequency. For biological diversity, these items are organized at many levels, ranging from complete ecosystems to the chemical structures that are the molecular basis of heredity. Thus, the term encompasses different ecosystems, species, genes, and their relative abundance." The area of flora, fauna and biodiversity is quite interrelated. Flora and fauna forms a major part of biodiversity. India is a land of varied flora, fauna and biodiversity. India is one of the twelve mega-diverse nations of the World. Two of India's great mountain ranges, the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats have been designated among the world's eighteen 'hotspots' of biodiversity. But In the last few decades we have seen a steady increase in the extinction rate of flora, fauna etc. all over world including India and so now, conservation of biological diversity is of paramount importance to the survival of man. Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains. The genetic diversity of plants and animals is preserved. It ensures the sustainable utilisation of life support systems on earth. It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to the scientific community. A reservoir of wild animals and plants is preserved, thus enabling them to be introduced, if need be, in the surrounding areas. Biological diversity provides immediate benefits to the society such as recreation and tourism. Biodiversity conservation serves as an insurance policy for the future.

Flora of India Many believe only animals are endangered. They think wild plants can just grow back after damage. Our native plants are declining at an alarming rate. Among them are some of the most beautiful and useful species on Earth. The implications of this trend are stunning. The importance of plants to life on Earth is immeasurable. The landscape and wildlife we cherish, the food we eat, even the very air we breathe is connected to plant life. Plants support wildlife. For every plant species that goes extinct, up to 30 other species of plants, insects and other animals may also decline. Plants provide the food and habitat for wildlife, from birds and butterflies, to antelope and field mice! Plants support a healthy environment. They provide clean air, help hold soil in place, clean water, moderate wind and water impacts, and shade the earth. Plants support people. Plants give many gifts to man. They provide food, fiber, fuels, pharmaceuticals, ornamentals and fragrance. Many of our native plants are known to contain chemicals that can be used to treat human illnesses. Others have the ability to fight agricultural pests and improve existing crops. Even more economic and scientific treasures await discovery. Each species is a potential natural resource. This is a real crisis. Habitat destruction, invasive foreign plants and animals, over collection, and other environmental damage are eroding our natural plant communities. Some species have declined to such small numbers that a bad storm or a plant collector could wipe them out in minutes. Without intervention they will be lost forever. The vegetation of India comprises some 15,000 species of plants. The jungles are thick and wooded with the flora to back up the fabulous fauna. Evergreen forests in the north-east and along the Western Ghats, moist and dry deciduous forests of the plains, swampy marshes of Bengal and Madhya Pradesh, pinewoods of the Himalayan foothills and the lagoons and estuaries down south - each pave for a different ecosystem, sheltering unique forms of plant and animal life.

Fauna of India India has some of the world's most biodiverse regions. The political boundaries of India encompass a wide range of ecozones—desert, high mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, swamplands, plains, grasslands, riverine areas as well as island archipelago. It hosts three biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, and the hilly ranges that straddle the India-Myanmar border. India's 3,166,414 square kilometres shows a notable diversity of habitats, with significant variations in rainfall, altitude, topography, and latitude. The region is also heavily influenced by summer monsoons that cause major seasonal changes in vegetation and habitat. India is home to several well known large mammals including the Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Leopard and Indian Rhinoceros, often engrained culturally and religiously often being associated with deities. Other well known large Indian mammals include ungulates such as the rare Wild Asian Water buffalo, common Domestic Asian Water buffalo, Nilgai, Gaur and several species of deer and antelope. Some members of the dog family such as the Indian Wolf, Bengal Fox, Golden Jackal and the Dhole or Wild Dogs are also widely distributed. It is also home to the Striped Hyaena, Macaques, Langurs and Mongoose species. Many of the gods are associated with certain animals: Brahma with the deer, Vishnu with the lion and cobra, Siva with the bull, and Ganesh, the eternal symbol of wisdom, is half man and half elephant. The earliest known conservation laws come from India in the 3rd century BC, when Emperor Ashoka wrote the Fifth Pillar Edict, forbidding the slaughter of certain wildlife and the forests. Unfortunately, during the recent turbulent history of India, much of this tradition has been lost. Extensive hunting by the British and Indian rajas, large-scale clearing of forests for agriculture, availability of guns, poaching, strong pesticides and the ever - increasing population have had disastrous effects on India's environment. Only around 10% of the country still has forest cover, and only 4% is protected within national parks and similar reserves. However, in the past few decades the government has taken serious steps towards environmental management and has established over 350 parks, sanctuaries and reserves. Conservation The need for conservation of wildlife in India is often questioned because of the apparently incorrect priority in the face of dire poverty of the people. However Article 48 of the Constitution of India specifies that "the state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country" and Article 51-A states that "it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures." Large and charismatic mammals are important for wildlife tourism in India and several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries cater to these needs. Project Tiger started in 1972 is a major effort to conserve the tiger and its habitats. At the turn of the 20th century, one estimate of the tiger population in India placed the figure at 40,000, yet an Indian tiger census conducted in 1972 revealed the existence of only 1827 tigers. Various pressures in the later part of the 20th century led to the progressive decline of wilderness resulting in the disturbance of viable tiger habitats. Conservation projects have been established to preserve them, but for some species, such as the Indian cheetah, protection has come too late - the Indian cheetah was last seen in 1948.

Ecology and Ecosystem (E&E) An ecosystem is a complex set of relationships among living resources, habitats and residents of a region. And Ecology is the scientific study of the processes influencing the distribution and abundance of organisms, the interactions among organisms, and the interactions between organisms and the transformation and flux of energy and matter. India is blessed with a wide variety of ecosystems. But its ecosystems and ecology are assaulted increasingly. Ecological understanding offer tangible hope for addressing extremely complex and potentially devastating assaults on local, regional and global ecosystems. And this kind of understanding can only be developed when information on varied ecosystems and ecology reach out not only to policy makers but also to people at large. It should especially reach out to the weaker segments of the populations of developing countries like India, for these are the people who suffer most from a loss of nature's services. Information on ecology and ecosystems help in identifying key issues as well as identifying trends, drivers and potential responses. These would provide lessons that would be of great value to the decentralized development planning.

Status of Environment Severe environmental degradation threatens to undermine the productivity and economic growth. Against this backdrop, the challenge for the Indian states is not only to minimize the environmental degradation but also to structure the economic decision-making process, keeping in mind the environmental concerns to make the state's development sustainable. And a sound decision-making process can only be based on reliable and timely information. Status of Environment (SoE) provides an analysis of the available information. It aims to provide details on the current status of the main environmental issues in the different states of India. It covers a wide range of environment related issues starting from human settlement, atmosphere, land, water, biodiversity to ecological sustainable development etc. It provides information on the various human activities that exert pressure on different environmental components. Impact of demographic shifts, urban sprawls, growth of the poor, changes in trends of industrial, commercial, and transport character, urban economic activities, etc. on air, water, land, biological environments, environmental health etc. are studied and analyzed in the report. The report also analyzes responses of the society, examines policies and strategies initiated under regulatory mechanisms along with their impacts. Besides, it identifies the information gaps, and highlights the main policy issues for decision-makers

Environment and Energy Management The word environment depicts a vast area. The protection of the environment is vital for Sustainable Human Development. Relevant factors of environment include food, waster, energy, natural resources, toxic substances etc. Energy is one of the most important factors of environment. Energy Management is critical to our future economic prosperity and environmental well being. Energy is essential for the functioning of most of the industrialized world as well as developing and under developed nations. Yet at the same time energy production and consumption causes degradation of the environment of the industrialized world and it seems that developing countries are also facing the similar kind of problem. Energy management is one of the most critical issues for the future as so much of the world is dependent upon it. Thus we need to understand the traditional sources of energy, their quality, availability and environmental effects, as well as the potential alternatives for energy and the effects of these upon the natural environment and modern industrial economies. Over the past two hundred years the use of primary energy sources in manufacturing or processing has evolved from simply using locally available resources, such as waterpower, firewood or coal. The transition from coal to a petroleum-based fuel economy took place through the twentieth century. With changes to the oil market in 2000 catching media attention around the world, there is further interest in the ongoing transition to renewable energy sources. Managing energy is now a basic feature in the global economy and environment. Fossil fuels in the form of oil, natural gas and coal comprise approximately 80% of the world's energy use. We now face a world where the environmental impacts of combusting fossil fuels such as coal and oil are identified as unsustainable in the long term. The need to turn to increasing use of sustainable and renewable energy sources is clearly agreed.

Nucleus is known as the brain of the cell.

Nucleus is also called the “brain of the cell”. Why so? Because it contains the genetic material and is responsible for a large number of functions. Nucleus is spheroid and is most prominent part occupying around 10% of the total cell volume.

Structure:
Inside the nucleus is present a structure called nucleolus which consists of rRNA and proteins but no DNA. It is the site of assembly of ribosomes which are important for the process of protein synthesis. Nucleolus disappears when the cell is dividing and reappears after the cell is formed. 

Then, there is chromatin consisting of long strands of DNA associated with proteins. When the cell is in resting stage, the chromatin is relaxed and when the cell is going to divide, chromatin condenses and forms what is known as  “chromosome” as can be seen in the figure.

Structure of Nucleus

Nucleus is surrounded by nuclear membrane/envelope which keeps the nucleolus and chromatin inside the nucleus. Nuclear membrane is double-layered. the outer layer is connected with another organelle as endoplasmic reticulum. The space between both the layers is  fluid-filled space called perinuclear space. 

Now, if the nucleus is membrane bound, then how do DNA, proteins or macromolecules pass through? For this, there are several opening in the nuclear membrane called thenuclear pores which are the sites for exchange of macromolecules.

Functions: 
It stores the genetic information in the form of “chromatin”. The gene expression takes place in nucleus which includes transcription where DNA is translated to mRNA. This mRNA is then transported to cytoplasm as ribosomes (which are present outside the nucleus, described here) are required for translation.
So, basically, nucleus says,  ”Hy Dude! I contain your genetic information and will form proteins for you whenever necessary”

Types of microorganisms.

Archaea (bacteria)

Archaea were once thought to be a type of bacteria. After extensive research of their DNA and membrane structure, some scientists decided to put them into a separate group - Archaea. Another group of scientists is still not convinced and refers to them as Archaeabacteria.

Archaea are unicellular prokaryotes which make them bacteria-like organisms. Their DNA structure resembles the DNA of eukaryotic cells. Also, the cell walls of Archaebacteria are structurally different from the bacterial ones. Archaea live in environments that would not be suitable for most life forms. They can be found around hot geysers, volcanic vents, very salty lakes and on the ocean floor. Because Archaea thrive in such extreme conditions, they are sometimes called 'organism - extremists' or 'extremophiles. Archaeans can survive these extreme conditions due to their physiology. They synthesise different enzymes that keep their cells from being destroyed by high temperatures, salty or acidic water.

Because of their 'fondness' for extreme environmental conditions, Archaeans are believed to be the first living forms that appeared on Earth when it was still waterless, airless and a scorching hot planet.

Based on their habitat, all Archaeans can be divided into the following groups:

• Methanogens - methane-producing organisms;
• Halophiles - Archaeans that live in salty environments;
• Thermophiles - Archaeans that live at extremely hot temperatures;
• Psychrophiles - cold-temperature Archaeans.

Archaeans use different energy sources like hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide and sulphur. Some of them use sunlight to make energy, but not the same way as plants do. These creatures absorb sunlight using their membrane pigment, bacteriorhodopsin. This reacts with light, leading to the formation of the energy molecule, of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Compared with bacteria, Archaebacterial cell walls are composed of different polysaccharides and proteins, with no peptidoglycan. See image 1.

Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria are aquatic, photosynthetic organisms. They can be unicellular or colonial. Cyanobacteria are sometimes called blue-green algae. Like other plants, they make their energy through photosynthesis, but besides that, they do not have anything in common with plants. Millions of years ago, the atmospheric oxygen that we depend on was generated by cyanobacteria. Most cyanobacteria live in water, damp soil and rocks.

Green land plants originated from cyanobacteia. It is believed that millions of years ago a plant's organelle, chloroplast, used to be free-living cyanobacteria. Some time in the late Proterozoic period cyanobacteria began to take up residence within some eukaryotic cells. These cyanobacteria 'payed their rent' by generating an energy source for the host cell. This process is called endosymbiosis. The endosymbiotic theory is supported by various structural and genetic similarities between chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. See image 2.

See animation 1. 

Bacteria

All bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes, meaning they do not have a defined cellular nucleus. Their genetic information is in their nucleoid, - single, circular tightly- packed DNA molecule. According to their shape, all bacteria are divided into three groups:

• spirilla (with a spiral body shape);
• cocci (with a spherical body shape);
• bacillus ( with a rod (stick) shaped body).

Some types of bacteria live on their own and others form colonies. Some bacteria are quite mobile and others 'stay put' for their whole life. Bacteria move using their cytoplasmic tail - flagella, or by secreting slimy substances that allow them to slide along surfaces.

The cell walls of most bacteria contain a polysaccharide called peptidoglycan. Differences in their cell wall structure is a major feature used in classifying these organisms. The staining abilities of bacteria are also based on their cell wall structure. According to the way they stain, bacteria can be classified as either Gram - positive or Gram - negative.

Based on their response to gaseous oxygen, all bacteria can be divided into the following groups:

Aerobic - living in the presence of oxygen;
Anaerobic - living without oxygen;
Facultative anaerobes - can live in both environments.

According to the way they obtain energy, bacteria are classified as heterotrophs or autotrophs. Autotrophs make their own food by using the energy of sunlight or chemical reactions, in which case they are called chemoautotrophs. Heterotrophs obtain their energy by consuming other organisms. Bacteria that use decaying life forms as a source of energy are called saprophytes. See image 3.

Protozoa

Protozoa is a subkingdom of unicellular, mostly aerobic, eukaryotic organisms. Sometimes they are also called protists. They are neither plants nor animals. They make up the largest group of organisms in the world in terms of numbers and biomass. Some protozoans, like Euglena, have chloroplasts like plants and make their own food, which makes them autotrophs. Others, like amoeba, are heterotrophs. Protozoans can be free-living or parasitic, unicellular or colonial. Some parasitic protozoans can cause diseases in humans. Protozoans move around using their flagella or pseudopodia - cytoplasmic temporary 'feet'.

Because heterotrophic protozans consume bacteria, they play a very important role in controlling biomass. Biomass is the total weight of living organimsms in a given area. See image 4.

Fungi

Fungi are saprophytic (feed on decaying organic matter) and parasitic organisms. Fungi include moulds, rusts, mildews, smuts, mushrooms and yeast. By breaking down dead organic material, they continue the cycle of nutrients through ecosystems. Some plants have a symbiotic relationship with fungi. Symbiosis is a mutually beneficial co-existence of dissimilar organisms. For example, there are mushrooms that live near tree roots and supply them with essential nutrients.

All fungi are made of eukaryotic cells. Fungican be single-celled or with cells arranged in filaments called hyphae. Yeasts are unicellular fungi. Masses of hyphae are called mycelia. Mycelia can be well structured, as in a mushroom, or tangled and unstructured, as in moulds. Some fungi can exist in the form of yeast and hyphae. These types of fungi are called dimorphic.

All fungi are heterotrophic, meaning that they obtain their energy and carbon compounds from organic nutrients. None of the fungi are photosynthetic. Some fungi are parasites and can cause diseases in humans, animals and plants. Some fungi are used in the food industry and pharmaceutics (antibiotic production). See image 5.

Viruses

Although viruses are not considered living organisms, they are sometimes classified as microorganisms. Viruses are much smaller than common microbes. They are made of a DNA molecule covered with a protein shell called a capsid. Retroviruses are made of an RNA molecule covered with a capsid. Capsids can take many shapes. Viruses cannot reproduce outside the host cell, but they cannot be called parasites either. Scientists still argue today about whether viruses are true living forms because they are not cells and they cannot metabolise on their own.

Viruses can infest prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, often causing diseases in organisms. A virus that infects bacteria is known as a bacteriophage.

Microorganisms their use in baking and beverage industry.

Microorganisms are used in brewing, baking and other food-making processes.

The lactobacilus / lactobacili and yeasts in sourdough bread are especially useful. To make bread, one uses a small amount (20-25%) of “starter” dough which has the yeast culture, and mixes it with flour and water. Some of this resulting dough is then saved to be used as the starter for subsequent batches. The culture can be kept at room temperature and continue yielding bread for years as long as it remains supplied with new flour and water. This technique was often used when “on the trail” in the American Old West.

Microorganisms are also used to control the fermentation process in the production of cultured dairy products such as yogurt and cheese. The cultures also provide flavour and aroma, and to inhibit undesirable organisms.
Microorganisms are used in brewing, baking and other food-making processes.

The lactobacillus / lactobacilli and yeasts in sourdough bread are especially useful. To make bread, one uses a small amount (20-25%) of “starter” dough which has the yeast culture, and mixes it with flour and water. Some of this resulting dough is then saved to be used as the starter for subsequent batches. The culture can be kept at room temperature and continue yielding bread for years as long as it remains supplied with new flour and water. This technique was often used when “on the trail” in the American Old West.

Microorganisms Use in energy……….
Main article: Ethanol fermentation
Microbes are used in fermentation to produce ethanol
Microbes are also essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology. Microbes can be harnessed for uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microbes for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution.

Microorganisms our friends and foes.

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Cell a basic structural and functional unit of life.

The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is sometimes called the building block of life. Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular. (Humans have an estimated 100 trillion or 1014 cells; a typical cell size is 10 µm; a typical cell mass is 1 nanogram.) The largest known cell is an ostrich egg. In 1837 before the final cell theory was developed, a Czech Jan Evangelista Purkyně observed small "granules" while looking at the plant tissue through a microscope. The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. All cells come from preexisting cells. Vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. 

The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning, a small room. The descriptive name for the smallest living biological structure was chosen by Robert Hooke in a book he published in 1665 when he compared the cork cells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived in.